An elegant, image-led reading of the Thymosin Beta-4 literature — every finding hung like a print.
Dr. TB-500

Plate R1 — References (n=23)

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Each row is a peer-reviewed source cited by number elsewhere on the site. Columns are year, species or model class, citation, and link. The table is sortable and searchable via DataTables. Filters: year (1992–2025), species or model (in vitro, rodent, pig, horse, human, review), and free-text search across authors and titles.

Where a paper has both a PubMed entry and a free-full-text PMC mirror, the table links to the PMC version. Where only a journal landing page exists, the table links there. The DOIs in each citation are the authoritative identifier.

References

[1] Xiong Y, Mahmood A, Meng Y, Zhang Y, Zhang ZG, Morris DC, Chopp M. Neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects of thymosin β4 treatment initiated 6 hours after traumatic brain injury in rats. Journal of Neurosurgery, 2011. DOI: 10.3171/2010.4.JNS10118. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20486893/

[2] Zhang J, Zhang ZG, Li Y, Lu M, Zhang Y, Elias SB, Chopp M. Thymosin beta4 promotes oligodendrogenesis in the demyelinating central nervous system. Neurobiology of Disease, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.01.010. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26805386/

[3] Wang L, Chopp M, Szalad A, Liu Z, Lu M, Zhang L, Zhang J, Zhang RL, Morris D, Zhang ZG. Thymosin β4 promotes the recovery of peripheral neuropathy in type II diabetic mice. Neurobiology of Disease, 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.08.002. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22922221/

[4] Cheng P, Kuang F, Zhang H, Ju G, Wang J. Beneficial effects of thymosin β4 on spinal cord injury in the rat. Neuropharmacology, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.06.004. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24937047/

[5] Morris DC, Chopp M, Zhang L, Lu M, Zhang ZG. Thymosin β4 improves functional neurological outcome in a rat model of embolic stroke. Neuroscience, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.04.071. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2907184/

[6] Othman O, Marshall H, Masterson M, Winlow P, Gibson G, Ding Y, Pardon MC. Thymosin beta 4 prevents systemic lipopolysaccharide-induced plaque load in middle-age APP/PS1 mice. International Immunopharmacology, 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109951. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36878045/

[7] Zeng PM, et al. Thymosin beta 4 as an Alzheimer disease intervention target identified using human brain organoids. Stem Cell Reports, 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2025.102601. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12447315/

[8] Aksu U, Yaman OM, Guner I, Yamasan BE, Demir B, Karatas OF, Aydin I, Atasoyu EM, Demirci C, Gultekin OS, Ekinci O. The protective effects of thymosin-β-4 in a rat model of ischemic acute kidney injury. Journal of Investigative Surgery, 2021. DOI: 10.1080/08941939.2019.1672841. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31702404/

[9] Yu R, Li S, Chen L, Hu E, Chai N, Liu Z, Zhang Q, Mao Y, Zhai Y, Li K, Liu Y, Li X, Zhou H, Yang C, Xu J. Inhaled exogenous thymosin beta 4 suppresses bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice via TGF-β1 signalling pathway. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 2024. DOI: 10.1093/jpp/rgae143. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39579076/

[10] Belsky JB, Rivers EP, Filbin MR, Lee PJ, Morris DC. Thymosin beta 4 regulation of actin in sepsis. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy, 2018. DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2018.1448381. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6556887/

[11] Ruff D, Crockford D, Girardi G, Zhang Y. A randomized, placebo-controlled, single and multiple dose study of intravenous thymosin beta4 in healthy volunteers. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2010. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05545.x. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20536472/

[12] Wang X, Liu L, Qi L, Lei C, Li P, Wang Y, Liu C, Bai H, Han C, Sun Y, Liu J. A first-in-human, randomized, double-blind, single- and multiple-dose, phase I study of recombinant human thymosin β4 in healthy Chinese volunteers. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 2021. DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.16693. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8419156/

[13] Sosne G, Kleinman HK, Springs C, Gross RH, Sung J, Kang S. 0.1% RGN-259 (Thymosin β4) ophthalmic solution promotes healing and improves comfort in neurotrophic keratopathy patients in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked Phase III clinical trial. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2022. DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010554. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9820614/

[14] Sosne G, Szliter EA, Barrett R, Kernacki KA, Kleinman H, Hazlett LD. Thymosin beta 4 promotes corneal wound healing and decreases inflammation in vivo following alkali injury. Experimental Eye Research, 2002. DOI: 10.1006/exer.2001.1125. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11950239/

[15] Xu TJ, Wang Q, Ma XW, Zhang Z, Zhang W, Xue XC, Zhang C, Hao Q, Li WN, Zhang YQ, Li M. A novel dimeric thymosin beta 4 with enhanced activities accelerates the rate of wound healing. Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 2013. DOI: 10.2147/DDDT.S50183. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3792846/

[16] Smart N, Risebro CA, Melville AAD, Moses K, Schwartz RJ, Chien KR, Riley PR. Thymosin β4 induces adult epicardial progenitor mobilization and neovascularization. Nature, 2007. DOI: 10.1038/nature05383. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17108969/

[17] Zhang et al. Engineered tandem thymosin peptide promotes corneal wound healing. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2024. DOI: 10.3390/ijms251910347. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12636994/

[18] He et al. Low-temperature fabrication of thymosin β4-loaded soluble microneedles to promote wound healing by specific binding to downregulated immune regulators Vsig4 and IL22Rα2. Advanced Healthcare Materials, 2025. DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202504878. https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adhm.202504878

[19] Yu H, Wang B, Li Z, et al. Tβ4-exosome-loaded hemostatic and antibacterial hydrogel to improve vascular regeneration and modulate macrophage polarization for diabetic wound treatment. Materials Today Bio, 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2025.101585. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11893380/

[20] Douglas GC, O'Bryan MK, Hedger MP, Lee DKL, Yarski MA, Smith AI, Lew RA. Antifibrotic peptide N-acetyl-Ser-Asp-Lys-Pro (Ac-SDKP): opportunities for angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor design. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 2013. DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12062. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23351021/

[21] Lee S, Lee H, Bae S, Kim E, Oh GT, Park H, Yeon JE, Byun KS, Kim K. Targeted deletion of thymosin beta 4 in hepatic stellate cells ameliorates liver fibrosis in a transgenic mouse model. Cells, 2023. DOI: 10.3390/cells12121658. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10297343/

[22] Esposito S, Deventer K, Goeyens L, Van Eenoo P. Doping control analysis of TB-500, a synthetic version of an active region of thymosin β4, in equine urine and plasma by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.10.022. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0021967312014550

[23] Wei C, Kumar S, Kim IK, Gupta S. Systemic dosing of thymosin beta 4 before and after ischemia does not attenuate global myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in pigs. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2016. DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00115. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853610/

  1. Xiong Y, Mahmood A, Meng Y, Zhang Y, Zhang ZG, Morris DC, Chopp M. Neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects of thymosin β4 treatment initiated 6 hours after traumatic brain injury in rats. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2011. ↗
  2. Zhang J, Zhang ZG, Li Y, Lu M, Zhang Y, Elias SB, Chopp M. Thymosin beta4 promotes oligodendrogenesis in the demyelinating central nervous system. Neurobiology of Disease. 2016. ↗
  3. Wang L, Chopp M, Szalad A, Liu Z, Lu M, Zhang L, Zhang J, Zhang RL, Morris D, Zhang ZG. Thymosin β4 promotes the recovery of peripheral neuropathy in type II diabetic mice. Neurobiology of Disease. 2012. ↗
  4. Cheng P, Kuang F, Zhang H, Ju G, Wang J. Beneficial effects of thymosin β4 on spinal cord injury in the rat. Neuropharmacology. 2014. ↗
  5. Morris DC, Chopp M, Zhang L, Lu M, Zhang ZG. Thymosin β4 improves functional neurological outcome in a rat model of embolic stroke. Neuroscience. 2010. ↗
  6. Othman O, Marshall H, Masterson M, Winlow P, Gibson G, Ding Y, Pardon MC. Thymosin beta 4 prevents systemic lipopolysaccharide-induced plaque load in middle-age APP/PS1 mice. International Immunopharmacology. 2023. ↗
  7. Zeng PM, et al. Thymosin beta 4 as an Alzheimer disease intervention target identified using human brain organoids. Stem Cell Reports. 2025. ↗
  8. Aksu U, Yaman OM, Guner I, Yamasan BE, Demir B, Karatas OF, Aydin I, Atasoyu EM, Demirci C, Gultekin OS, Ekinci O. The protective effects of thymosin-β-4 in a rat model of ischemic acute kidney injury. Journal of Investigative Surgery. 2021. ↗
  9. Yu R, Li S, Chen L, Hu E, Chai N, Liu Z, Zhang Q, Mao Y, Zhai Y, Li K, Liu Y, Li X, Zhou H, Yang C, Xu J. Inhaled exogenous thymosin beta 4 suppresses bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice via TGF-β1 signalling pathway. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2024. ↗
  10. Belsky JB, Rivers EP, Filbin MR, Lee PJ, Morris DC. Thymosin beta 4 regulation of actin in sepsis. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 2018. ↗
  11. Ruff D, Crockford D, Girardi G, Zhang Y. A randomized, placebo-controlled, single and multiple dose study of intravenous thymosin beta4 in healthy volunteers. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2010. ↗
  12. Wang X, Liu L, Qi L, Lei C, Li P, Wang Y, Liu C, Bai H, Han C, Sun Y, Liu J. A first-in-human, randomized, double-blind, single- and multiple-dose, phase I study of recombinant human thymosin β4 in healthy Chinese volunteers. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. 2021. ↗
  13. Sosne G, Kleinman HK, Springs C, Gross RH, Sung J, Kang S. 0.1% RGN-259 (Thymosin β4) ophthalmic solution promotes healing and improves comfort in neurotrophic keratopathy patients in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked Phase III clinical trial. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022. ↗
  14. Sosne G, Szliter EA, Barrett R, Kernacki KA, Kleinman H, Hazlett LD. Thymosin beta 4 promotes corneal wound healing and decreases inflammation in vivo following alkali injury. Experimental Eye Research. 2002. ↗
  15. Xu TJ, Wang Q, Ma XW, Zhang Z, Zhang W, Xue XC, Zhang C, Hao Q, Li WN, Zhang YQ, Li M. A novel dimeric thymosin beta 4 with enhanced activities accelerates the rate of wound healing. Drug Design, Development and Therapy. 2013. ↗
  16. Smart N, Risebro CA, Melville AAD, Moses K, Schwartz RJ, Chien KR, Riley PR. Thymosin β4 induces adult epicardial progenitor mobilization and neovascularization. Nature. 2007. ↗
  17. Zhang et al. Engineered tandem thymosin peptide promotes corneal wound healing. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024. ↗
  18. He et al. Low-temperature fabrication of thymosin β4-loaded soluble microneedles to promote wound healing by specific binding to downregulated immune regulators Vsig4 and IL22Rα2. Advanced Healthcare Materials. 2025. ↗
  19. Yu H, Wang B, Li Z, et al. Tβ4-exosome-loaded hemostatic and antibacterial hydrogel to improve vascular regeneration and modulate macrophage polarization for diabetic wound treatment. Materials Today Bio. 2025. ↗
  20. Douglas GC, O'Bryan MK, Hedger MP, Lee DKL, Yarski MA, Smith AI, Lew RA. Antifibrotic peptide N-acetyl-Ser-Asp-Lys-Pro (Ac-SDKP): opportunities for angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor design. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology. 2013. ↗
  21. Lee S, Lee H, Bae S, Kim E, Oh GT, Park H, Yeon JE, Byun KS, Kim K. Targeted deletion of thymosin beta 4 in hepatic stellate cells ameliorates liver fibrosis in a transgenic mouse model. Cells. 2023. ↗
  22. Esposito S, Deventer K, Goeyens L, Van Eenoo P. Doping control analysis of TB-500, a synthetic version of an active region of thymosin β4, in equine urine and plasma by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2012. ↗
  23. Wei C, Kumar S, Kim IK, Gupta S. Systemic dosing of thymosin beta 4 before and after ischemia does not attenuate global myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in pigs. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2016. ↗
  24. Mendias CL, Awan TM. Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance. Sports Med. 2026. ↗
  25. Cha HJ, Jeong MJ, Kleinman HK. Role of thymosin beta4 in tumor metastasis and angiogenesis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003. ↗
  26. Wang WS, et al. Thymosin beta 4 is overexpressed in human pancreatic cancer cells and stimulates proinflammatory cytokine secretion and JNK activation. Cancer Biol Ther. 2008. ↗
  27. Cooper TM, et al. Doping control analysis of TB-500, a synthetic version of an active region of thymosin β4, in equine urine and plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A. 2012. ↗
  28. Spurney CF, et al. Evaluation of skeletal and cardiac muscle function after chronic administration of thymosin beta-4 in the dystrophin deficient mouse. PLoS One. 2010. ↗
  29. Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Thymosin β4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2012. ↗
  30. Thomas A, et al. TB500/TB1000 and SGF1000: A scientific approach for a better understanding of doping-relevant peptide preparations. Drug Test Anal. 2023. ↗